Attachments
ZERO TO THREE
September 2006
52
Note: This article is excerpted from a chapter in Cradling
Literacy, forthcoming from the ZERO TO THREE Press.
Lisa and Danielle were coteachers in a 2- and 3-year-old
classroom. They enjoyed working together most of the time,
but occasionally what seemed like minor issues caused them
to make some pointed comments that silenced them both.
For example, Lisa believed the children were too young to be
handling scissors during art projects and would observe
aloud, “They don’t know how to cut anyway.” Danielle
would respond by rolling her eyes and saying, “Well, that is
exactly why the children should be using scissors. They need
to practice to learn how to use scissors.” Setting out food
also seemed to elicit a minor conflict. Lisa set up a very gen-
erous table full of goodies for the children to snack on.
Danielle would often comment that it offered too many
choices for the children. She was also concerned that “chil-
dren waste too much food.” Lisa would then counter with
her view that snack time should be a fun activity that stimu-
lated language. “Besides, why are we saving food? There is
plenty of food, and if not, we can buy some more.”
Introduction
Lisa and Danielle get along most of the time and are
good friends outside of the work environment, but what
seem to be minor issues can leave them rolling their eyes
and unable to see each other’s point of view. They get
exasperated with what they perceive to be the other’s illog-
ical way of thinking. Why? Their own upbringing and their
cultural perspectives about children influence their percep-
tions of even everyday activities such as using scissors and
eating snacks. We all bring specific values, beliefs, and
CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON EARLY
LANGUAGE AND LITERACY
TEACHING PRACTICES
REBECCA PARLAKIAN
ZERO TO THREE
and
SYLVIA Y. SÁNCHEZ
George Mason University Graduate School of Education
assumptions about child-rearing and child development to
our work with infants and toddlers. Even two colleagues
who share same ethnic culture may not share the same
beliefs about what’s best for very young children, what
experiences they need, and what our expectations for their
development should be. Conflicts around these issues will,
quite naturally, arise with our colleagues and the parents of
children in our care. Learning how to recognize the other’s
point of view and come to some shared solution is critical
in providing high quality care to infants and toddlers.
Children learn to communicate in the context of their
home culture. Beginning at birth, children use their
home language and culturally accepted communica-
tion styles to connect with others in a meaningful way,
forming secure relationships that are intrinsic to
healthy development. For the early childhood teacher,
it is important to establish supportive, respectful rela-
tionships as well—with both families and children.
These connections help teachers learn more about the
strengths, needs, and culture of every child in their
care. Collaborative relationships with families also
provide teachers with the information they need to
support children’s individual language and literacy
development. By creating a richly diverse and welcom-
ing environment, by remaining aware of their own
cultural beliefs (and biases), and by identifying a vari-
ety of teaching strategies to share the magic of print
and language, early childhood teachers can spark a
lifelong love of reading in the children they care for.
abstract
ZERO TO THREE
September 2006
53
cultural knowledge, linguistic knowledge, culturally
informed teaching knowledge, knowledge of multicultural
materials and literacy methods, and knowledge of home-
school relationships (Abt-Perkins & Rosen, cited in Willis,
2000). Each will be discussed in more detail below.
(1) Self-Knowledge. Before teachers can address the lit-
eracy needs of children in their care, they must first
become aware of their own cultural beliefs and practices.
Self-knowledge is defined as “a thorough understanding of
one’s own cultural roots and group affiliations” (Haberman
& Post, cited in Willis, 2000). A teacher’s culture, lan-
guage, social interests, goals, and values—especially when
they are different from the children in the program—can
create a barrier to understanding how best to support the
learning of the children in her care (Orange & Horwitz,
cited in Willis, 2000). By reflecting on their own cultural
beliefs and practices about teaching and learning, teachers
can better understand the cultural perspective they bring
to the early childhood classroom.
It is also important to consider the knowledge we have
acquired from our professional education. Our training
gives us a cultural lens through which we interpret chil-
dren’s behavior and skills. This professional perspective
probably includes information about what are considered
“best practices” in teaching language and literacy skills and
what are considered “developmentally appropriate” skills
for children aged birth to 5. As we get to know various
children, families, and cultures, we may find these profes-
sional standards challenged in various ways.
This process of reflection can become complicated
when teachers are members of the mainstream culture.
Dominant groups, whether by race or class, are often
unaware of their cultural identity because their cultural
beliefs comprise the mainstream standard of what is consid-
ered “normal” or “typical” (Tatum, cited in Willis, 2000).
Minority cultural groups may be more aware of their iden-
tity because external images and practices often do not
reflect their beliefs of their family or community. Some
potential cultural differences related to language and liter-
acy learning are outlined below. Take a few moments to
reflect on your and your family’s beliefs and practices in
each of these areas.
• When do you believe that children should begin to acquire
language and literacy skills? Do you believe it is important
to speak to children (babies) who are preverbal?
• What is the correct way to interact with books and other
literacy materials? For example, how do you feel about
babies sucking and chewing on books?
• Do you think parents should take on a “teaching” role
when it comes to language and literacy skills?
• Do you prefer to read stories to children, tell stories, or
sing songs? Why do you think that might be?
When teachers become aware of their cultural backgrounds
and values, they can begin to address any preconceived
How we view the world is shaped by the beliefs, val-
ues, and experiences of prior generations of our respective
families. Each generation has refined its sense of what is
most important for children to know, believe, value, and
do to ensure survival of the cultural and social commu-
nity. This unique family culture is passed on to the new
generation through the stories that are told to children
and through the family and community’s child-rearing
practices. As we grow, our individual experiences and
interactions also impact the cultural lens we use to under-
stand the world around us. In this way, we are products of
our family and community history, our environment, and
our upbringing.
Links to Early Language and Literacy
Skills
Culture shapes our expectations of what children can—
and should—know and do at various ages. These beliefs
influence how we interact with children in early childhood
programs. And the curriculum choices we make based on
our beliefs become part of children’s life stories, affecting
their skills, motivation, and excitement about language
and literacy learning.
Researchers have identified five knowledge bases
needed for teaching in a diverse classroom; learning more
about each of these can support teachers’ efforts to pro-
mote children’s literacy and language learning from birth
to age five. These knowledge bases include: self-knowledge,
PHOTO: JANET BROWN MCCRACKEN
ZERO TO THREE
September 2006
54
notions that could make it difficult for them to accept,
understand, and effectively teach children in their care
(Willis, 2000).
(2) Cultural Knowledge. Cultural knowledge refers to
the important role that culture plays in shaping children’s
perceptions, self-esteem, values, behavior, and learning
(Willis, 2000). Research on culturally relevant teaching
practices has found that knowledge of children’s home cul-
tures—most importantly their languages, literacy practices,
and values—can help teachers address the interests and
build on the skills of their students (Abt-Perkins and
Rosen, cited in Willis, 2000). Some ways that teachers can
learn about children’s cultures include talking with fami-
lies, viewing family photographs or videos, involving fami-
lies in classroom activities, reading about families’ cultures,
observing interactions between children and families, and
attending cultural events in the community.
When teachers make an effort to understand family cul-
tures, they are better able to individualize the curriculum
to ensure that it is meaningful and relevant to children.
This, in turn, contributes to children’s successful language
and literacy skill acquisition.
(3) Linguistic Knowledge. Teachers must also understand
how young children’s communication styles and dialects
affect their learning. Accepting children’s home languages
can help them transition to the more standard form of Eng-
lish that is an important part of literacy development; as
Au notes, “with regards to . . . literacy learning, proficiency
in standard American English should be seen as a goal, not
as a prerequisite to becoming literate” (Au, cited in Willis,
2000).
How can teachers gain linguistic knowledge? By listen-
ing to children, talking with parents, and watching parents
and children talk together. Teachers may observe impor-
tant cultural differences in these interactions, such as (Bar-
rera in Willis, 2000):
• The forms of questions children are asked and
accepted responses from children;
• The perceived uses of reading and writing;
• The styles of oral narration (story-telling);
• The patterns of interaction between adults and chil-
dren (e.g., children may not be encouraged to take the
lead in conversations with adults);
• Accepted roles of behavior, such as those associated
with gender;
• Customary ways of responding (e.g., a value placed on
eye contact while speaking, or not).
Teachers can learn more by visiting the family’s commu-
nity and by asking families what language and literacy
skills they believe are important for their children to
achieve. From these interactions and observations, teach-
ers gain an understanding of the strengths children and
families bring with them to the program. Such knowledge
can help teachers support the development of literacy and
language skills, building from the child’s current knowledge
and interests. This practice describes a strengths-based
approach, which draws from what children already know
and can do; in contrast to a deficits-based approach, which
focuses on the perceived gaps in children’s skill sets (e.g., a
lack of proficiency in standard American English). Con-
sider which approach you have found more effective in
your own learning experiences.
(4) Culturally Informed Teaching Knowledge. Culturally
informed teaching knowledge describes the information
and access to resources that allow teachers to create a
learning environment that welcomes children from diverse
cultures. This environment describes not only the physical
set-up of the classroom, but also a culturally sensitive pat-
tern of teacher-child interactions, and the use of teaching
approaches that engage and encourage the participation of
children from a variety of cultures.
Culturally informed teaching strategies help teachers
individualize learning experiences based on each child’s
needs. Delpit notes: “The question is not necessarily how
to create the perfect ‘culturally matched’ learning situation
for each ethnic group, but rather how to recognize when
there is a problem for a particular child. . . . “ (Delpit, cited
in Willis, 2000) After the problem and its cause are
addressed, teachers can identify a specific learning
approach tailored to that child.
Most importantly, teachers’ expectations of and rela-
tionships with their students are profoundly important in
promoting early learning. The teacher’s expectations, often
communicated in both verbal and nonverbal ways, influ-
ence children’s behavior and academic performance:
“Children mirror the teacher’s expectations” (Willis,
2000). Research has established that when children feel
welcomed, valued, and challenged in their learning envi-
ronment, and when new learning builds upon their prior
knowledge, experiences, and interests, they are more acad-
emically successful (Willis, 2000).
(5) Knowledge of Multicultural Materials and Literacy
Methods. This knowledge base refers to the use of multicul-
tural texts in ways that serve to reduce stereotypes, rather
than perpetuate them (Abt-Perkins & Rosen, cited in
Willis, 2000). One of the most powerful ways for early
childhood programs to honor children’s cultures is by uti-
lizing multicultural children’s literature in the curriculum.
Such books stimulate discussions about human differences,
diversity, and cultural beliefs and practices (both of main-
stream and subordinated groups). Consider the following
checklist when selecting children’s books that value diver-
sity (Derman-Sparks & A.B.C. Task Force, 2001; Jalongo,
2004; Temple, Martinez, Yokota, & Naylor, 1998):
• Does the book reflect a diversity of gender roles;
racial, economic, and cultural backgrounds; special
needs and abilities; a range of ages; a range of occupa-
tions?
ZERO TO THREE
September 2006
55
• Do the text and illustrations present current, accurate,
respectful images and information?
• Is the culture portrayed multidimensionally?
• Are cultural details naturally integrated into the story?
• Does the book reflect different languages?
• Is the speech of the people in the book accurate and
appropriate?
• Does the story help members of a group feel greater
pride in their background?
• What is the copyright date of the book? How might that
have affected the accuracy/authenticity of the story?
• Does the book encourage children to become more
socially conscious?
Teaching strategies for introducing language and literacy
skills must also take into account issues of culture. Teach-
ers working with culturally and linguistically diverse stu-
dents soon discover that there is no one “right” way to
promote early literacy learning. It is necessary, instead, to
seek out flexible, responsive teaching strategies.
Strickland (1998) provides teachers and caregivers with
six characteristics of relevant literacy instruction for cul-
turally and linguistically diverse students. Using these as a
framework, teachers can create their own approaches to
promoting the learning and intellectual curiosity of the
children in their care. These characteristics include:
• A child’s culture and background experiences are critical to
literacy learning. Children learn how literacy is used
and how knowledge is shared both at home and at
school. Each perspective is important.
• What is happening in children’s homes is important to their
learning. Every home environment has strengths and
challenges; teachers can look for ways to build on
family strengths as a means to support children’s
learning. Teachers must also avoid characterizing the
home learning environments of linguistic or cultural
minority children in a biased manner, as great vari-
ability exists within cultures and across communities.
• Learning and teaching is enhanced when context is utilized
to support children’s learning. One way to view literacy
is as an ever-expanding set of experiences and activi-
ties, rather than the acquisition of prerequisite skills
(Teale & Sulzy, cited in Yaden & Tam, n.d.). Based
on this view, emergent literacy skills are embedded in
the contexts of both home and community, as well as
in the more formal context of child care or preschool.
When teachers are familiar with and can mobilize lit-
erate members of a child’s home and community con-
texts to promote the development early literacy skills,
they can support children’s learning in all of their
caregiving settings.
• The use of language for real communication enhances
learning. It is critical to give children the opportunity
to use meaningful oral and written language.
• The use of culturally relevant materials and activities helps
to support children’s learning. This is a reminder to
teachers to become more knowledgeable about both
multicultural literature and the communication styles
of the families in their programs. In short, when learn-
ing is meaningful and relevant to children’s lives, and
PHOTO: BARBARA YOUNG
when it builds on children’s existing knowledge, it
tends to “stick.”
• A focus on high-level thinking and problem-solving is criti-
cal for all children. Rather than focusing solely on
mechanical issues, such as pronunciation at the word
or letter level, teachers should also engage children in
more substantive activities, such as discussing stories.
This helps to avoid the boredom that reduces chil-
dren’s motivation for literacy learning.
Links to Family and Community
The last knowledge base needed for teaching in diverse
classroom, knowledge of home-school relationships, explores
the importance of relationships between teachers and fami-
lies as a strategy for promoting children’s literacy learning.
The present as we know it is linked to the past as lived
and interpreted by the generations that went before us. So
it is with the families we work with. Knowledge of home-
school relationships can help teachers collaborate with
families and engage their expertise to enhance children’s
literacy learning in the program.
The first step is for teachers to examine their own pre-
conceived notions about home literacy environments.
Numerous research studies refute the “notion that poor,
minority and immigrant families do not value or support
literacy development”; rather, these families “frequently
see literacy and schooling as the key to mobility, to chang-
ing their status and preventing their children from suffer-
ing as they have” (Auerbach, cited in Willis, 2000). Just as
children live up (or down) to teachers’ expectations, fami-
lies, too, can sense when the efforts to engage them are
genuine and when they are not. When teachers reach out
to families, offering them respect, and engaging them as
equals, true collaboration can occur.
This collaboration has measurable effects on children’s
literacy development. One research study, involving
largely African-American and Latino inner-city families,
found that when developmentally appropriate and cultur-
ally sensitive literacy activities were used in schools and
homes, when parents were included and involved in the
planning, when homework was assigned that required
parental involvement, and when monthly meetings with
parents, teachers, and children were held, the literacy
achievement of [children] increased” (Morrow & Young,
cited in Willis, 2000). Findings like these serve as a
reminder of the importance of quality relationships at all
levels of the program—between teachers and children, and
between teachers and families. Early childhood teachers
can use supportive, respectful relationships in a strategic
way to support children’s learning, in both the literacy and
language domains and beyond.
Together, the five knowledge bases discussed above sup-
port teachers’ efforts to create a culturally sensitive, welcom-
ing, and respectful learning environment for children and
families from all cultures. These knowledge bases encourage
self-awareness and reflection on the teacher’s part and pro-
vide support for identifying alternate and creative ways of
promoting literacy learning. In reviewing each, it is impor-
tant to remember that these do not represent five steps that,
once taken, are completed and never revisited. Rather, they
reflect an ongoing process of self-awareness, learning, and
discovery that are repeated at intervals throughout a
teacher’s career.
The Teacher’s Powerful and
Professional Role
By taking a good look at our early relationships and child-
hood experiences, we can be more aware of the impact they
have on our role as teachers and caregivers, and on our feel-
ings, attitudes, and beliefs about children. It is important to
remember that every interaction that we have with a child is
a cultural exchange. How we diaper, what and how we feed
an infant or toddler, the words we use to guide a young child,
the topics or problems we select to discuss with families, the
toys and other materials we purchase or make available for
play, the way we hold a child, (and so on) are all a reflection
of our cultural beliefs. By taking the time to reflect on how—
as young children—we were fed, talked to, disciplined or
guided, nurtured, and taught, and who was involved in our
care, we can begin the process of understanding what and
why we have certain beliefs and expectations about young
children. This awareness is also important for helping us
understand how our culture influences our practices and the
relationships we have with children in our care.
Recognizing that each person has a culture that impacts
all interactions with others is a first step in the process of
becoming aware of our unique cultural perspective. Many
erroneously believe that culture is what others coming
from exotic lands process. It is fairly common for many in
the United States to believe that they are “just normal
Americans,” and find it a challenge to consider that there
may not be just one shared culture in this society. It is by
being willing to explore our own beliefs, family stories, atti-
ZERO TO THREE
September 2006
56
PHOTO: DEBBIE RAPPAPORT
ZERO TO THREE
September 2006
57
tudes, family history, and early memories that the recogni-
tion and acceptance we all have a culture begins to
emerge. This process of exploration and questioning may
not be simple or easy, but the benefits will be many. One
benefit is that we will be clearer on what and why we
adhere to certain beliefs and attitudes, and how these affect
the relationships we have with the children in our care and
their families.
Teachers have the potential to play a powerful and cru-
cial role in the lives of the young children. Through posi-
tive and nurturing relationships with children and their
families, teachers can have a long-term impact on both the
emotional and intellectual development of the children in
our programs. A
REFERENCES
Derman-Sparks, L., & the A.B.C. Task Force. (2001). Anti-bias curricu-
lum: Tools for empowering young children. Washington, DC: National
Association for the Education of Young Children.
Jalongo, M. R. (2004). Young children and picture book (2nd ed.). Washing-
ton, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Strickland, D. S. (1998). Principles of instruction. In M. F. Opitz (Ed.)
Literacy instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse students:
A collection of articles and commentaries (pp. 50–52). Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
Temple, C., Martinez, M., Yokota, J., & Naylor, A. (1998). Children’s
books in children’s hands. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Willis, A. (2000). Critical issue: Addressing literacy needs in culturally and
linguistically diverse classrooms. Retrieved April 5, 2005, from
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/reading/li400.htm
Yaden, D. B., & Tam, A. (n.d.). Enhancing emergent literacy in a preschool
program through teacher-researcher collaboration. Retrieved April 5,
2005, from http://www.ciera.org/library/reports/inquiry-2/2-011/
Report%202-011.html
Getting Ready for School Begins at Birth
How to Help Your Child Learn in the Early Years
CLAIRE LERNER and LYNETTE CIERVO
Getting Ready for School Begins at Birth helps parents and other
caregivers understand how children from birth to 3 years learn the basic
skills they need to be successful in school. It also shows parents and
caregivers how they can nurture the development of those crucial skills.
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